Which method is most directly associated with a lack of informed consent?

Covert observation is most directly linked with a lack of informed consent because participants are unaware they are studied.

In-depth interviewing normally begins with the respondent's explicit consent.

Content analysis studies existing texts and rarely involves living participants directly.

A case study can and usually does obtain consent from those involved.

Informed consent requires that participants know about and agree to the research.

Covert methods are justified only when overt study is impossible and harm is minimal.