Which of the following criteria in research relates mainly to the issue of causality?

Internal validity concerns whether an observed effect is genuinely caused by the manipulated variable rather than a confound.

Transferability is a qualitative criterion about applying findings to other settings, not causation.

Measurement validity asks whether an indicator truly captures the concept it claims to measure.

External validity concerns generalising results beyond the study sample and setting.

Establishing causality needs covariation, correct time order, and elimination of rival explanations.

Random assignment is the main safeguard that strengthens internal validity.