Which of the following statements are true regarding the Nyaya (classical Indian school of logic) view of hetvabhasa (fallacy)?

1.It means the middle term appears to be a reason but is not a valid reason

2.All fallacies are material fallacies

3.When an inference is based not on causation but on uniformity of co-existence, it leads to a fallacy

4.Fallacies occur when any of the five characteristics of a middle term are violated

A1, 2 & 3 only

B1, 2 & 4 only ✓ Correct

C2, 3 & 4 only

D1, 2, 3 & 4

Correct answer: (B) 1, 2 & 4 only

Explanation

Hetvabhasa is a middle that only seems to be a valid reason, and every such fallacy is material.

The term means the mark appears to be a probans but fails as a genuine reason (Statement 1).

Since the Nyaya syllogism is both formal and material, all its fallacies are material fallacies (Statement 2).

A fallacy arises whenever any of the five marks of a valid middle term is violated (Statement 4).

Inference resting on uniform coexistence, by contrast, is a valid non-causal inference, not a fallacy.

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