Which of the following inferences are based on causation according to the Nyaya view of inference?

1.Inferring future rain from dark clouds

2.Inferring past rain from the swift muddy water in a river

3.Inferring the cloven hoofs of an animal from its horns

4.Inferring somebody's existence outside their house since the person is not present in the house

A1 & 3 only

B3 & 4 only

C1 & 2 only ✓ Correct

D2 & 3 only

Correct answer: (C) 1 & 2 only

Explanation

Only the cloud-to-rain and muddy-water-to-past-rain inferences rest on causation.

Dark clouds are the cause of coming rain, so inferring future rain reads effect from cause (purvavat).

Swift muddy water is the effect of past rain, so inferring earlier rain reads cause from effect (sesavat).

Both link two events tied by a cause-and-effect relation.

The two causal types are effect-from-cause and cause-from-effect, distinct from inference by mere uniform coexistence.

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